By Mark Ighile

Introduction

For if culture is, as Sam Akpabot (1986:91) puts it ” a way of thinking, feeling and believing in any given society, resulting in a behavioural pattern which gives that society a distinctive identity”, then one remarkable scheme of finding out about the culture of a people is to examine how they conceptualise their music. The argument of Wissler ( 1922 :155) in respect of the cultural potentials of music is appropriate for our present study. According to him “music is a stable trait and therefore provides a useful basis for determining the diffusion of other cultural traits” Alan Merriam posits that:

Music is a product of man and has structure,
But its structure cannot have an existence of its
own divorced from the behaviour which produces
it. In order to understand why a music structure exist as it does,
we must also understand how and why the behaviour
which produces it as it is, and how and why the concept which underlie that behaviour are ordered in such a way as
to produce the particularly desired form of organised sound
(1964, 7)
Fundamentally because of their different environments, more than any other reason that may be advanced, the African and the European conceive of music in different ways. Tracey (1960:10) for instance, believes that the word ‘music’ in Africa means ‘vocal participation, the physical manipulation of instruments and the rhythmic or dance movement associated with music’. In order to get at the true involvement of music in an African society, we need, as Sam Akpabot also advised, to study closely the role of music in religion, government and the various secret and ceremonial societies which regulate the lives of the people, not forgetting the individual and collective role of musical instruments.

The Benin Society
While this paper does not undertake a re-assessment of Benin society and culture since this is neither a historical nor sociological study, it is however important to undertake a summary of the socio-cultural milieu from which Benin song and music emerge. This is because, any approach to the songs of Benin people that fails to recognise the dynamic nature of the society in focus, is likely to miss its significance.
Any formal discourse on any aspect of the people and their language must begin with a clarification of the trems “Edo” “Benin” and “Bini”, especially as they have come to be associated with a number of distinct interpretations. The oral traditional account, as diligently documented by Jacob U. Egnarevba in hi famous book, The Origin of Benin, traces the origin of the use of the term “Edo” as the indigenous name for Benin City to Oba Ewuare (1446 -1473). According to one version of the account:
“Edo was a slave to the then Ohieta
He saved Ewuare from a sudden death when
He was about to be arrested by the chiefs.
Therefore in order to immortalize the name of the
His deified friend, Edo for the good service he
Rendered him, Ewuare changed the name of the
City to “Edo” according to his friend’s name…”
(Egharevba 1954:8)
If this account is true, as Rebecca Agbheyisi argues (1982:iii), it would appear that the extension of the name to refer also to the language of the inhabitants of the city, and indeed the Benin Kingdom was a natural development. One of the earlier names for the territory before this change to Edo was Idu, a term which remains in names such as Idubo, Idumwonyi etc.
The other names also currently associated with the city and language of its inhabitants, namely “benin” and “bini” have an origin which in somewhat obscure. Again according to traditional account

From the time of ogiso igodo (obagodo)
to Ere, the country was called “igodomogodo”,
from the time of ogiso Ere to Evian, it was called
“Ile” Oranmiyan called it “Ile-ibinu” oba Ewedo
( i.e 1255 -1280 ) change it to Ubini ( Benin )
(Egharevba 1956:3 )
Collin legun’s account is not radically different from that recorded by Egharevba. According to him

a thousand years ago the kingdom was known
as igodomogodo ( town of towns) a name that
survived for 300 years or so. Its name ile ibinu
– The land of vexation was bequeated by the
first of its Obas, Oranmiyan. Later it was
amended to Ubini and translated into Benin
(1960 : 103)
All the same, if the Oba Ewedo’s name for the city “Ubini” is the origin of “Benin” and “Bini” then it would not be out of place to argue that their use the city and the language predates that of “Edo” in which case the latter was intended to have replaced them.
Thus, there is an obvious sense in which the three names can be used side by side though with some degree of specialisation in their respective references. “Benin” systematically came to be used strictly as a territorial label as in the expression: Benin city, Benin kingdom, Benin empire, and Benin division while the other two names “Bini ” and Edo have become predominantly linguistic and ethnic labels referring in scope to the language and people of the same Benin kingdom. However, as Rebecca Agheyisi observes, “Edo ” has continued to serve as the indigenous name for the city.
(1982: IV)
While there seems to be agreement on the factor of “Benin” as a territorial tag, the issue of the place and nature of “Bini” remains a controversial one. The Oba of Benin (1992) stressed that the early chronicles never referred to the people as “Bini” what obtained, according to the monarch was that the empire was known the earliest historians as Benin City, Benin Kingdom and Benin Empire. The inhabitants, the citizens are known as “Edo”. Of course, to the actual indigenous citizens both the territory and the people are known as Edo, thus “Irrie Edo” (I am going to Benin) or “Ovbie Edo” (Benin person). “Bini” according to the Oba, crept in through wrong pronunciation and therefore wrong spelling by non-Edo indigenes.
The Edo language is today spoken throughout most of the territory conterminous with the Benin Division of the former Mid-Western State of Nigeria and which has now been demarcated into the Oredo, Ovia and Orhionmwon Local Government Areas. The same area constituted the permanent core of the pre-colonial Benin Kingdom and empire and its inhabitants have always referred to themselves as Ivbi –Edo.
However, it is important to note the further ambiguity introduced into the reference of the term “Edo” as a linguistic label when linguistic decided to use it as the designed for the group of historically related languages and dialects spoken in various communities within and around the former Benin Kingdom. These languages and dialects include the Edo language proper of the Benin Division, the Ishan group of dialects: the language and dialect now spoken in the present Owan Etsako and Akoko-Edo Local Government Areas, Urhobo and Isoko and their related dialects.
Although Northcote W. Thomas referred to the speakers of these languages and dialects as the “Edo – speaking peoples” in his famous ethnographic report of 1910, this seemed not to have settled the controversy. Westermann and Bryan (1952:87) for instance created their own kind of ambiguity by referring to the group as the “BINI Language group” and to the single language as BINI. They however noted that the name Edo is used by some writers (eg Thomas) to cover all the languages of the Group
However, the ultimate solution to the nomenclatural problem, as Agheyusi (1982) also rightly pointed out may be found in the proposal by Ben Elugbe entitled “Edoid Languages” published in 1979. The obviously positive implication of Elugbe’s contribution is that it frees the term “Edo” for use in reference to the single language and the people.
It is important to add, at this point, that the Edo language as a tonal one. And this being so, the characteristic inflection of tone affects the meaning of utterances which are given the same graphic representation. Many Benin singers make ample use of tonal variations in their songs. Egogo Alagebo is a striking example of the lot.The estimated area of the territory of Benin is about 10,372 square kilometres while the 1952 and 1963 population figures for the Divisions are given as 292,081 and 429,907 respectively (Agbeyisi, 1982 : IV). At mid 1986 the estimated population was given as two millions (1991 population census, Norborg 1992 : 3).The Nigerian Population co
The Benin society possesses a rich oral and written literature. While the former is well known by the people, the latter is developing rapidly. The Benin oral literature is by definition dependent on the performer who formulates it in words on specific occasions. It can be said to be a tradition which nourishes its pride and is transmitted from generation to generation. The literature is portrayed in their masquerades; stories and folklore. Proverbs, riddles, satirical jests, poems of indirection and moon-light rhymes also play important roles in the literary life of the Benin people.
Two types of communicative events as a appropriate for story telling are recognised by the people. These are the ‘’Ibota and Okpovbie” . The Ibota according to Osemwegie Osayomwanbo (1992) literally means ‘’the prolongation of the evening”. It is a sort of relaxation in the evening by the family or a group of people, a mixture of adult and the young ones, male and female. They listen to the stories and event that have happened in Edo Kingdom or events embodying planning for the development of the community. In Ibota story telling events, one person could upon among the family group to tell a story he knows while others listen attentively. The head of the family presides over tales told in Ibota.
The Okpovbie essentially entails the playing of drums throughout the night without sleeping. The Okpovbie story teller in Edo is a professional man who tells stories with efforts to entertain people till daybreak. This kind of story telling is quite different from Ibota because the Okpovbie stories are of a more serious events, and longer than Ibota stories. Generally speaking however, the most common stories are trickster stories about the tortoise (Equi) and his dubious ways.
Most of the stories teach moral lessons and this didactic quality of the tales makes them serve as means of improving the morals of the people. They also carry out psychological functions. People with mental, emotional and psychological problems have their tension released and their spirits lifted up, the moment they listen to these tales.
Quite an appreciable number of stories have songs (ihuan) in them, and during the course of narrating these tales, tales, the performer (or narrator or story teller) sings a song while the audience joins him by repeating the choruses. It is not unusual for both the performer and the audience to clap their hands and dance as they sing. This dramatic action sharply illuminates the function of these takes as means of entertainment. In order to sustain the interest of the audience and make his tale credible, the story teller use histrionics and other forms of dramatization.
The roles played by proverbs (itan) and riddles (irro) in the literary and cultural life of Edo people can hardly be over stressed. In fact they form the basis of many traditional expressions in the Benin society. Proverbs can be described as popular sayings or, as Uyilawa Usuanlele (1991:3) puts it ‘’an indomitable expression or quotations embodying some form of truth and wisdom used in a speech to support or summarize some point”. And although some scholars attribute shortness or conciseness or brevity to the quality of proverbs, this does not obtain at all times. Proverbs are very crucial to rituals, marriage and burial ceremonies, court, schools conversations and other social functions.
Proverbs carry out emotional and moral functions. While some are used for encouragement as in ‘’Uhunmwun ekpen wi ye o ha” which means that the elephant’s head never gets lost in the forest, some others are used for advice as in ‘’Ikhiavbo etan se ne Oyaen ‘’ which means that the melon never grows more than the one who cultivates it. This is a counsel given to the young to be of good behaviour. Some proverbs can be seen as protest ones. They probe and at times, question actions. A striking example is T’ime ma gbe Ovbie E bo (Did I kill the European?).This proverbial saying is used to refer to situation in which undeserved extreme punishment (Usuanlele 1991: 8).
Other Proverbs are used in prayer to ward off evil as in ‘Atete wi i ye igho which means that the traditional tray never gets lost in a feast and ‘’Ebee ake awe ye Uhunmwun erhan” which that mishap never befalls a bird which is on top of a tree. These expressions are also frequently in ritual perfofmance by those seeking protection from the divinitees against their adversaries.
Riddles (Irro) usually come up during evening relaxation. The questioner begins by posing : Gbi iro to the audience which responds by saying ‘’Alo”.
Question : ‘’Gbi Iro”
Answer : ‘’Alo”
Questions: He digs, yet he has no tools or hands.
Answer: Urine.
Some riddles express contrast or relationship between two different objects and ideas. At times similar objects are brought together in order to describe their differences. For instance:
Question : two sisters locked up in a room weeping, one edible, the other not.
Answer : though we aeat sugarcane, we do not the weed.
Riddles, like puzzles, are very important in the literary and cultural life of the people. They, as Lghile (1991 : 16) put it “test the scope of the knowledge of the people, thereby making the community aware of various aspects of life”.
The art and creativity of the masquerade (ekpo) are demonstrated in the dramatic movements and songs of the performer(s) and the audience. The masquerade normally come out in the dry season from their farm which is known as “ugbe ekpo”. This place is where all preparations for the publis performance are made. Women are not allowed to enter the farm. And the telling, the performance comes up in the night. It should be stressed that while Benin popular songs have not completely lost grip of the past, they are very much concerned with the present reality of Benin society.
A Conceptual Approach to Benin Song and Music
Alan P Merriam (1964) gives music an anthropological and social interpretation, an exercise which indirectly promotes the submission of Mair (1965) that culture has to do essentially with ” the common possession of a body of people who share the same traditions in social terms”(8). He says :

Music exists only in term of social
interaction and it is learned behaviour…
it involves the behaviour of learned
individuals and group of individuals
( 27)
As if giving credence to Merriam’s view and at the same time making a case for musical values and their changing social conditions,, Nketia Kwabena (1974) observes that:

A knowledge of….
music in its social context is a prerequisite
both for understanding the contemporary
musical scene in Africa and for gaining
some insight into the musical experience
as it relates to the African in his personal and social life.
( 19-20)
Musical concept is important because they determine how music is appreciated and evaluated in a particular society. Knowledge of musical concepts, it should be stressed, is not synonymous with verbalisation and actualisation. That the Benin people have not been emphasising “sophisticated” analysis of music (i.e. the musical examination in scale and feet), does not mean that they are ignorant of such concepts as melody, tempo, pitch and rhythm. There are indeed terms in the Bini language which are technical in the sense of being almost exclusively concerned with music and the people. This restrictive or rather non-universal element of music should be put in its proper course of its ability in settling some pronounced misapprehensions. Akin Euba (1969)’s observation is worthy of note. According to him;

In (traditional) society there is no language
of music universe among the people of
Nigeria. In other words, each tribe has a
musical language of its own which is often
exclusive to it and there is little musical
communication on an intertribal basis.
This situation may be due partly to a
Conservative approach to music

And partly to the use of music
to satisfy the social requirements of the
tribe. It may also account for the
multiplicity of traditional idioms of music-
of speech language- and of musical
instruments found in the country.
( 476)
In order to fully acknowledge the Benin popular song, it is necessary to have an idea of how the people embrace or receive this particular genre of their oral literature, what they appreciate as the beauty of song, what constitutes a good musical production, what is expected from a composer and so on. But before addressing Benin musical concepts, it is essential to give attention, by way of distinction, to ‘folk’ and popular song.
In his prefatory essay to The Study of Folklore. Alan Dundes (1962:2) attempts to simplify the issue of folk for the introductory student. Folk according to him can refer to “any group of people whatsoever who share at least one common factor”. Although this definitive observation can be seen and taken as an oversimplification of the delicate concepts of folk and folklore, and which as characteristic of a particular group are quite illuminating. The distinction, in Western music between folksong, popular song and art song in terms of training, performance and other technical expectations is worth noting. As explicitly presented in Encyclopedia Britannica (1943) :

Folk songs are not intended for trained virtuoso
performer. Mostly they are sung unaccompanied
or with simple accompaniments i.e. guitar. They
are usually learned by ear and are
infrequently written down. They are
susceptibly to change. Composer of most folk-
songs are unknown, forgotten…Art songs
are intended for performance by professionals,
or at least carefully taught singers. The
notes are written down by known composers
…Popular songs stand midway between folk
and art songs with regard to technical
difficulties, sophistication and resistance
to change.
(349)

Perhaps more total and embracing of the striking approaches to the conceptual elements in focus is that given by George List (1972:363). He sees the term ‘folk music’ as on “often loosely applied to cover all traditional or aurally transmitted music, music that is passed on by ear and performed by memory rather than by written or printed musical score”. He then goes ahead to highlight some remarkable features of folk music- the performer is not aware of its origin and the melody exists in various forms. “Popular music” to him may not be transmitted by the musical scene. It so often varied in performance and at times is improvisatory in nature… (it) is generally an ephemeral commercial product intended for mass consumption rather than a tradition known and practised in a restricted area or by a subculture (1971,364). George Herzog 1972:1032) in the same light states that “folk song comprises the poetry and music of a group whose literature is perpetuated not by writing and print, but through oral tradition”

The approaches of Dundes, List and Herzog stress the communality of the “folk” and their dependence on the spoken word as opposed to writing. Because the society in focus (the Benin social set up), is largely pre-literate, the element of writing and oral tradition as distinguishing characteristics of popular and folk songs respectively, is not too relevant. And since the rural and urban exist on a mutual and relational basis, the distinction of folk as rurally oriented and popular as tending more towards urbanity, is not convincing. What is however striking is the place and identity of the composer. In the case of the folksong, neither the composer nor the time of origin of the song is known. With this reasoning therefore, folksongs in Benin would be said to include lullabies. On the other hand popular songs are compositions whose composers are known, in the villages and in the urban centres. A thematic distinction can also be made. “The folk songs are preoccupied with issues that can best be termed”traditional”. As Nketia (1973:1) puts it: folk songs are “perpetuated largely by oral and integrated with a living, surviving or historical pattern of community life” Popular songs, on the other hand, accommodate modern ideas, modern politics and the modern overview. Some strokes of English and other languages are woven round the songs.
There has been an acknowledged disagreement on the definition of music and the factor of abstraction. While Willard Rhodes (197:38) for instance, observes that “music exists in abstraction, and is composed of tone that has no symbolic meaning”; scholars of non-Western music are opposed to the definition of music in such abstract, non-relational term. Music, they insist, ought not to be treated as an extra-societal phenomenon. The complex behaviour which leads to music production is of equal relevance as the final sound product. Such behaviours to a large extent condition the acceptance and appreciation of the end product. Merriam, (1964) thus warns that

Music cannot be defined as a phenomenon
of sound alone, for it involves the
behaviour of individuals and group of
individuals and its particular organisation
demands the social concurrence of people
who decide what it can and cannot be (30).

The Binis have their own musical singing style polished by their culture, language and level of literacy. To them, music is, among others, a function of human effort and order. A person either uses his vocal mechanism to produce music as is singing or his hand as in instrumental music (Norborg, 1992, 25ff). In any case, to produce meaningful music, there must be a creative blend of form and some kind of organisation or recurring pattern. The fact that music is produced by human beings who impose order on the sound readily presupposes that not every person within a given cultural group can do this with the same degree of skill. This readily introduces us to another vital concept, that of ‘musical talent’. The Binis are not consistent on how musical skill is acquired. There are some who hold the view that talent is inherited from one’s parents or at least a relative, others believe that talent is acquired by drinking certain medicines and others believe that every person is born with the same aptitude but interest and training determine whether one becomes a musician or not. At the centre of these diverse views is the embracing belief that people are born with equal opportunities of acquiring music talent but one’s family background and his upbringing as well as his determination can make him a better musician than others.

Apart from musical talent, another concept which is crucial in determining music production in a culture is that of the origin of music. Here again Merriam (1964) states that:

A distinction must be made at the outset
between the ultimate source from which music
originates and the sources from which the
individual draws his specific music material.
That is, the ultimate origin of music or of
specific kinds of music may be held to be the
creation of the gods, for example, while
individual songs in the same society may be
obtained through borrowing.
(74).

In other words, the possibility of borrowing and socio-divine origin brings to light a set of realisable origins of music: the supernatural, the individual or community or through borrowing. In our brief exposition of ‘folk’ and ‘popular’ song, we subtly addressed the origin of song among the Binis. Music is held to be as old as man as is shown in the saying”kobe n’ bue agbon te abgon, a ke siwuan” which literally translation means ‘since the beginning of man, he has been singing”. This clearly implies that music is so old that it is not always possible to know its origin. There is however no doubt whatsoever that the Binis do not believe that music originates from animals, even if in tales animals do belief I divine or supernatural origin of music. Music is seen as the product of human creativity blended with interest and training. The way a people conceive of the origins of their music is important because it determines the functions of their music as well as ideas about ownership. When music is held and taken to be the product of human beings, whether as individuals or as a group, the musicians are more conscious of their creative efforts, of the need to strive after excellence. With respect to Benin popular songs, the composers are not only known, but they themselves are aware of their relative fame in the society. This gives room for keen competition and thus promotes high standards.
Closely tied to the origin of music is the concept of ownership. Whether music is a communal property, individual or group property depends in the long on how it originated. The music of secret societies (kyaagba 1982,38) provides a ready instance of that which is owned by a closed circle of initiates and it is taboo for non- initiates to even try to learn it. Lullabies are common property because their composers are unknown. Popular songs, however, are the property of their composer. But ownership here, it must be stressed, should not be seen in Western copyright terms; for one does not need to apply for permission to sing any song. The composers themselves privately sing and enjoy one another’s song but for public performances, they keep strictly to their own repertoire. Singing another composer’s song would be a way of acknowledging the superior artistry of such a composer, and the strong but healthy rivalry that exists among composers makes that impossible.
Ownership of music determines to what extent members of the society have access to the composition of its musicians. Communal ownership entails wider appreciation of the music, while a situation of copyright restriction limits the range of usage. Benin people do not tie starkly ownership of music to the composer. No composer would ever contemplate prohibiting the singing of his song even if he could, as this would be selfishness of the type unacceptable to the society. Even in cases where composers have waxed records, their songs continue to be used as if they were not covered by copyright laws – indeed not very many people are aware of the existence of such laws.

The place of the musician is very central to this topic. And his role as the originator of music cannot be overemphasised. Nketia (1964) says:

…an understanding of the role, functions,
and personal life of the musician may contribute
to our understanding of his music with respect
to what it means both to him and to those who
enjoy it with him.
(79)
While the musician may not necessary need to possess special qualities, he certainly requires a good voice, a retentive memory, ability to create on the spur of the moment and a certain flair for histories. Such abilities could be developed and advanced through constant practice. However, musical association that perform social dance and music for their own enjoyment or for the entertainment of others are common among the Benin people. They are often hired to display at festivals. Most musical associations specialise in one type of dance and music which they perform regardless of the occasion.

There is a strong sense in which members of a musical association can be classified as professional musicians. They are organised into group, they received financial reward for their services, and they have received at least some formal training. In most cases, instructions can be given by elders, relatives or by other local musicians (Nketia 1975, 51-64). Often leaders of musical associations serve as instructors who try to improve their groups by having rehearsals regularly. Generally, the reputation of a musical association can be attributed largely to the leader’s skill as a musician, teacher and organizer. Members of such group are not usually full time musicians; although they have other occupations as well, they are normally acknowledged as professional musicians. In this capacity, they are not regarded as having either high or low social rank. Nevertheless individual differences in musical ability are recognised, and a person can enjoy a considerable measure of personal prestige as an expert. Musical associations have probably existed for many centuries among the Edo. Certain social dances are said to be very old and Adam’s account (1966; 114-115) of a social dance performed by women to the accompaniment of “Ukuse” gourd rattles shows that there were groups of professional musicians and dancers in Benin at the beginning of the nineteenth century.
It is well known that Benin kings and chiefs have had musicians connected to their courts since centuries. The court musicians of the Oba of Benin are divided into five groups: the ‘Ogbelaka’, the ‘Igbemagba’. the ‘Ikpema’, the ‘Ikepeziken, and the ‘Ikpakohen’; each of which is charged with specific responsibilities at the court. They all belong to the Iwebo Palace Association ( Egharevba 1968: 78-80). The ‘Ogbelaka’- the Royal Bards- dance, sing and play various instruments at state rituals such as Igue ( the yearly glorification of the head), the coronation and funeral ceremonies for an Oba. They also perform ‘Ikiewa’ i.e. waking the Oba ceremonially by imitating the crow of a cock. They live in a special quarter in Benin City.The ‘Igbemagbe’ (i.e. the ‘emaba’ performers; ema= drum,eba=jingles made of dried aba seed pods) also dance and pay their instruments the emeba clapperies bell, at Igwe and at the funeral ceremonies of an Oba. The ‘ikpema’ (i.e.’ the players of the drums’, singular Okpema ) on the other hand, only play different types of drums. Like the ‘ Ikpe.iziken’ (i.e. ‘the players of the eziken; singular Okpeziken’) who play eziken flutes, the ‘Ikpema’ are employed on various ceremonial occasions such as the funeral of an Oba and the Oba’s procession through Benin City during certain festivals. The ‘Ikpakohen’ (i.e. the players of the akoyen) singular Okpakohen, finally, who play ivory flutes and horns are also employed on a number of ceremonial occasions, among them the coronation of an Oba Outside these groups stands the ‘Okpakha’ i.e. the players of ;Okha’ who beat the Okha slit-drum to summon people to some of the state rituals. Court musicians are usually full-time professionals. They are organised into groups, they receive financial rewards for their services, and they receive some formal training. In addition, most of them have no other occupation, but as musicians, their means of living is supplied by the king or chief whose court they are connected.

Conclusion

While the distinctions between folk and popular song among others in the final analysis, may not have comprehensively explored the Benin musical concepts and society, it has undoubtedly succeeded in narrowing down the field of reference and guarding against generalisation. The Benin popular song has its firm foundation in the people’s oral tradition and therefore tasks their collective consciousness. The composers too are not unaware of the need for them to come close to the tradition so that their songs would be more easily embraced and appreciated. This explains why the musical concepts held by the society are of importance to the study of songs. It is also necessary to have a recourse to Alan Merriam (1964: 63)’s identification of a number of concepts such as the distinction between music and noise, musical talent; origin of music, production and ownership of music. It should be stressed that while Benin popular songs have not completely lost grip of the past, they are very much concerned with the present reality of Benin society

Works Cited

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Usuanlele, Uyilawa (1991) “Proverbs as Useful Sources for Reconstructing Colonial African History with Some Bini (Edo) Examples” A Paper Presented at the 10th Annual Conference of the Archeological Association of Nigeria , Ibadan, 10-11 November.
Wissler, Clark. (1992) The American Indian. New York : Oxford University Press.

Astrology charts begins with the mapping of the planets, including the sun and the moon. This map is called an astrological chart. Most often an astrological chart is designed for someone at birth. To determine the position of the planets, sun, and moon for an astrological chart the astrologist needs to know the exact location of the birth, the exact time, and the date of the birth.

The planets found on the astrological chart are the Sun, the moon, Saturn, Venus, Jupiter, Mars, Neptune, Uranus, Mercury, and Pluto. The earth is not considered because it is the point in the universe from which we view the other planets. The sun and moon are considered planets in the astrology charts, which is hard for some people to remember.

In the astrological chart consists of twelve houses. Each house represents an aspect of life, such as romance, career, family, etc. Since there are only ten planets, each astrological chart will have two vacant houses. Vacant houses represent aspects of life which, for whatever reason, the cosmos do not feel you need to work on. In other words, you may have mastered this aspect of life in another life or realm.

The position of the sun also determines your sun sign. This is the first aspect of astrology studied on the astrological chart. Next, the positions of the planets are studied in relation to their influence on the sun sign. Finally, the moon sign and position is studied in relation to the rest of the astrological chart.

The interpretation of an astrological birth chart as a whole will paint the picture of the original personality of the individual. The birth chart found through astrology later in life may not appear accurate. This is due to the fact that other astrological phenomena in conjunction with life events alter the personality over time.

Astrology is the study of the astrologyl charts of course, as well as the prediction of the future based on how other astrological phenomena might influence the original readings. The interpretation of the astrological chart is also a large part of the art of astrology, and is necessary for accurate predictions.

The use of astrology in predictions is considered an art for a reason. Not only must the astrology expert interpret the birth chart and the current astrological phenomena, but the astrology expert must also interpret any astrological phenomena that may have altered the personality of the individual over time. Amazingly, life changing events can often be seen using astrology readings from the time of the event.

Many major events in history can also be marked by astrology readings. For example, the fall of the Roman Empire was marked by astrological phenomena. The horror of 9/11 and the destruction of the twin towers was also awaited by those who study astrology. Even the birth of Christ was marked by astrological phenemona. Get your free astrology charts reading today.

I tried to fit in as much info as I could, without taking up too much video time. If anyone would like to know more about their sign, I would recommend going here: www.astrology-online.com for beginners. Also, note that if you don’t relate with your sign, you have an entire chart. A lot of people are on the cusp, which means your birthday comes right before or after the start or end of a sign.. so do your research and let the soulsearching begin! -Chris
Video Rating: 4 / 5

Introducing the Job of Actor

A career in acting is the dream of many, often because of the glamour and glitz associated with it. However, acting is as demanding as any other career. It requires extraordinary talent and is physically and intellectually stressful. It offers minimum of security and often entails years of struggle. That said however, it can also offer a high degree of fulfillment and satisfaction.

Key Responsibilities

Beginning a career at entry level, the roles and responsibilities of an actor are: An actor learns about the character offered to him and its relation with other characters through the script, the director’s instructions and their own research in order to develop proper role interpretation. Working closely with the director, other actors and the writer, he refines his role interpretation. Next, he studies and rehearses the role, learning and memorizing dialogues from the script and using other cues given by the director. Finally, he portrays the role using speech, facial expression, body movements, actions and emotions. He also sings, dances or performs action stunts if required. After production, he may sometimes promote the production through interviews, stage shows and other means.

Level of Education Required

To be a successful actor one requires a sharp insight into human behavior, ability to visualize things as well as the ability to come up with original, novel ideas about a given thing or situation. In addition, one needs a working knowledge of the dramatic arts, the ability to memorize dialogues and deliver them clearly and effectively as well as a good physical fitness including sharp near vision.

At a young age, one can begin training in acting by participating in the extracurricular activities at the school level. At a higher level, more than 600 colleges and universities across the US offer theater arts programs and many have special drama schools. Various acting schools located mainly in New York City, Los Angeles and other metropolitan areas also offer special training in dramatic arts.

In addition to developing acting skills, aspiring actors should study voice and speech, styles and mannerisms, etc. Learning skills like dance, stunts, fencing, horse riding, martial arts, etc. is often highly beneficial. Strong knowledge of play and film production can also help. In general, exposure to more and more areas of life experience widens the horizons of an actor.

Career Path

Some actors are discovered so to speak, but most begin with making the rounds to get a role. This includes finding out what plays or movies are scheduled for production, visiting and registering with casting offices, leaving photographs and profiles and attending auditions. In the beginning they often get small roles like that of the extras in films, walk-on parts in plays or voice-over jobs for television commercials. Many actors go to New York City or to Hollywood to find work. Other American cities like Boston, Minneapolis, Chicago and Washington are also developing regional theatres and repertory companies. Only some actors become stars, but most professional actors do get a steady employment. Besides acting, many also become successful directors or acting teachers. In near future, many new actors’ jobs are projected to be available as old actors retire. However, competition for the available jobs will always be tough in the field.

Summary

When discussing the Actor Resume, acting demands a great deal of talent in addition to hard work. However, it can offer a great deal of satisfaction. While successful actors can make a fortune, less successful ones also are able to get steady and rewarding employment.

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Being a professional video game tester is a dream job. Most gamers would love the chance to be able to play great video games and get paid for it. Unfortunately though, most gamers think that paid video game testing is too far out of reach and will remain a dream forever. Well luckily, it’s not a “dream” and anybody can be a paid video game tester with the right amount of experience and guidance.

The following steps should help you get started with a career in professional video game testing.

Step 1: Don’t Wait For Jobs to Find You, Get Out There and Find Them.
Video game tester jobs are not going to fall from the sky, so you can’t expect to find them with a few glances at the Sunday newspaper. Therefore, instead of just sitting around and waiting, be proactive and actually chase those high paying testing jobs.

Make a beeline straight toward the game developers and present your case, no matter how poor or excellent it might be. Let them know who you are, what you do (game tester), and why you would make a great addition to their team/project.

It’s important to remember that developers aren’t going to hire you on the spot; so, don’t let rejection get you down. They have lots of video game testers applying for projects and jobs, which means they can literally be as picky as they want to be. With that being said, be as confident as you can and be sure to let them know of all your gaming accomplishments and deeds. They should know about what games you play frequently, what consoles you own, what communities you are apart of, and any websites/blogs you own or help operate. No matter what the gaming accomplishment, big or small, it will help with landing you a job.

Step 2: Don’t Think “Hobby with Pay”, Think “Career With Benefits!”
You have to keep in mind that developers pay video game testers as part of a job. They are not paying testers to merely enjoy video games at their own expense. Therefore, when you land a testing job, don’t simply play it to have fun; play it like you are earning a paycheck. Does that mean you can’t have any fun? No; it simply means you shouldn’t make “fun” your top priority while testing video games.

If you take each and every testing job seriously and give it your all, you should have a much more successful game testing career.

Step 3: Know What To Expect
The biggest part of being a professional video game tester is knowing the golden rule; which is “You are paid to test games, not to play them.” There may be a fine line between the two, but any real game tester will tell you that the difference is definitely there.

The subtle difference between testing and playing is, well, work. A game tester will have to do actual work, such as filing reports & filling out questionnaires; as opposed to a regular game player, who will just relax and play the game at a leisurely pace. Admittedly, the work isn’t back breaking, but it is work nonetheless.

The questionnaires are the easier part of game testing, as all the video game tester has to do is answer some general questions about the game and give his/her honest opinion. The reports, on the other hand, are a bit more difficult to do. These reports need to be filed on every bug/glitch that the tester comes across, and they have to be remarkably accurate. In each report, the video game tester has to describe what happened, where it happened, and how it happened. With this detailed information in hand, the developers & programmers will then fix the problem and find out why it happened in the first place. Every video game goes through this basic cycle, which is precisely why video game testers are so vital to the gaming industry.

As you can see, there really isn’t all that much work involved with video game testing, but that doesn’t mean it isn’t a serious profession.

Step 4: Build up a Network of Reliable Contacts.
Networking is a crucial part of professional video game testing. Although it is quite possible to have a prosperous career without a reliable network, having one just makes things easier.

A network of contacts can actually help your career in many different ways. The biggest thing it can do is give you heads up about new job openings and testing assignments that have been announced. Also, some of your contacts can even act as valuable references when applying for testing jobs. And, as if those two things weren’t enough, your network can give you the inside scoop about what’s going on behind closed doors.

Much like a video game tester job, a reliable network is not going to just jump out at you. Therefore, you will have to build it up all on your own. The best way to do that is by getting to know the industry and the people who work in it. Anyone that spends time around video games (professionally, of course) can be included in your network; game testers, developers, programmers, concept artists, art designers, graphics designers, technical support specialists, audio specialists, etc. Basically, if they know video games and work with video games, you want them in your network.

Step 5: Don’t Give Up. Keep Trying!
The unfortunate fact is that you are not going to land a video game tester job whenever you want one. As a matter of fact, it may be weeks or even months before you land your first testing job. However, that doesn’t necessarily mean that you don’t have what it takes; it just means you have to keep trying & giving it your best. Not many newcomers start off at the top of their game, which means you likely won’t either. Hence, just give it time. After a few months and a few jobs, you should be able to get your footing and begin advancing in your career as a professional video game tester.

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One of the most important segments of the entertainment industry is video games. This part of the industry is worth billions of dollars every year. Knowing this, it is easy to see why fake video game suppliers flood the market with counterfeit wholesale video games. This causes quite a problem for those who are going to purchase video games on an individual basis or for a video game business. If you do an internet search for video games list, you will find many sources, but, keep in mind that these may not be legitimate suppliers.

Technological advances today have made it easy for people to copy and counterfeit video games. With new releases making millions in the first day, it is easy to see why you can find so many fake games out there on the market. When you see top selling games online for really low prices beware! These are usually counterfeit video games.

Five rules to help you avoid buying counterfeit wholesale video games

These rules are important no matter if you are buying new video games or even used video games. They also go for any type of gaming system, from xbox video games to Wii. Whenever you are dealing with a video game wholesaler be sure to keep these in mind.

The first rule to consider is:
Think realistically. An authentic new release of a popular game selling an unbelievable low price just doesn’t legitimately happen. If it is a hot game that is selling well in the store, ask yourself this question – Why would this video game distributor be selling this a this low of a price? The answer is usually because it is a counterfeit video game.

The second rule is this:
When a high demand video game is out of stock at most stores, and you find a wholesale video game distributor advertising several copies of it a low price, a good question to ask is – Why do they have so many of these when all the stores are sold out? This should be a huge red flag to you! This is something that you can often find offered on online auction sites. Make sure that you read the descriptions on these listings very carefully. Counterfeiters will usually be very vague in their descriptions and they do not usually disclose the authenticity of the game. They also sometimes advertise these as cheap video games. They assume that if they do not say that it is real, then you can’t really complain if it is a fake. Make sure you check them out carefully.

The third rule:
Video games that are listed as new but opened should put up a red flag for you. Make sure that you find out why it has been opened and why they are selling it. If you are buying video games wholesale in lots, that have been opened, I would strongly recommend against this.

The fourth rule:
When you see a game advertised by video games wholesalers that is said to be new, but it does not come in the original box, beware! If the original instruction manual or booklet is not included you can bet it is probably a counterfeit.

The fifth rule:
Most counterfeit video games come from Asia, so use caution if you are buying from a seller in that area. If you are buying from an online auction site, make sure to check the sellers feedback and do some research into the company to make sure there are no complaints against them.

These principles also apply when you are dealing with wholesale video games such as wholesale Wii games, wholesale Xbox games, wholesale ps3 games, wholesale PSP games, wholesale Xbox 360 games, wholesale Nintendo DS games, and even looking to purchase wholesale PC games and wholesale video game accessories.

Common sense is the bottom line issue. If it sounds too good to be true, it usually is. Do the proper research on the company before you buy wholesale video games. It may take some time but it can help you avoid getting scammed.

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Many people think that all a game tester does is play games and have loads of fun. It’s true that they do play games, but they rarely ever have LOADS of fun. Starting a career as a professional video game tester takes more than just the ability to play video games. A game tester has to have experience, work hard, and have a remarkable amount of patience. Game testers would love it if they were paid to only play games day in and day out; but unfortunately, that isn’t how it works. A video game tester gets paid to test games, not to play them.

Read These Very Useful & Extremely Powerful Video Game Tester Tips. They should help you land more jobs as a video game tester.

Tip #1: Looking through newspapers and classified ads in the hopes of finding job openings is a lost cause. It simply will not happen, period. Although game developers need testers on a regular basis, they are not advertising it. Why don’t they? Because the professional video game testers will find them, that’s why. Therefore, instead of waiting for them to find you, you have to go out and find them.

Game testing jobs are not going to fall into your lap, so don’t simply sit around as though they might. You have to get yourself out there and make your way directly to the companies and game developers. Make sure that they know who you are, what you do, and why you are so great at what you do.

It’s vital that you present a strong case for each developer and gaming company you apply to. You have to convince them that you are indeed video game tester material and absolutely nothing will get in your way of testing the hell out of a video game. The best way to do this is to let them know of every game accomplishment you’ve ever had, every console you own, every game you’ve played, any video game related websites you are a part of, any references you have, and anything else that could possibly impress them enough to give you a job.

You have to remember not to be embarrassed about your time with video games. Other people may have mocked you and said “you play games too much”, but they weren’t preparing for a career as a video game tester, were they? With that being said, don’t be ashamed of gloating about how much experience you really have with video games.

Tip #2: Begin working on your network of contacts. Your network can be made up of virtually anyone who knows anything about video games. Obviously, the more successful your contacts are, the better; but that doesn’t mean you should ignore the little guys. You never know who can pull what strings and be able help you the most.

Generally speaking, any person who hangs around video games is someone you want to add to your “network”; other testers, audio specialists, developers, customer support specialists, game artists, programmers, etc. These people can keep you up to date on job openings, new game developments, or they can just put in a good word for you come application time.

All in all, a reliable network is an indispensable tool for a video game tester; so be sure to devote a portion of your time to increasing the size of your network. You won’t regret it.

Tip #3: A career as a professional video game tester is no less serious than a career as a doctor. Although the careers are at the two opposite ends of the job spectrum, they are still careers in which a person is paid to complete tasks. A doctor’s job is to fix people and a video game tester’s job is to fix video games. Both get paid for what they do and how well they actually do it, period.

It doesn’t take a genius to realize that video game testers have much more fun than other professions, but that doesn’t mean it is all fun and games. Believe it or not, there is actual work involved with being a game tester. Yes, contrary to what you might have heard, there is work involved with game testing.

What type of work? Well, nothing back breaking; mostly just filling out bug reports and questionnaires. Alright, so it’s not quite as involved as a doctor’s or a surgeon’s work. The point is that video game testers do more than just play games.

So, do you still want to be a professional video game tester? Duh! Of course you do. This is a dream job and you’d be a complete nut not to want a career in video game testing. With that being said, go back and read through the tips above one more time and then get ready to start your very own Video Game Tester Career!

FROM ALLGAMES.COM NOTES: This was produced in January 2006 for game developer DAVID PERRY. It had to be two minutes and thirty seconds long, for an audience of non-gamers, and was to show what games might look like 5 years from now. Thus why some pre-rendered PS3 videos, and cut scenes were used. As for why there is no RPG collection, we thought about starting with Zork text and evolving but realized for a non gamer audience it wouldn’t be easy to quickly explain role playing in a few clips. We will be doing a series of these in the future, check back. A short trip through the evolution of video games. From pixel to polygons, atari to HD, this is a visual ride through various video game genres as they evolved with new technology and talent from game developers. The clip was produced for a presentation made by game developer David Perry at the prestigious TED Conference in Marin County. www.ted.com
Video Rating: 4 / 5

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Astro Fortune Healer is the best & top astrology site on the internet. Best astrologers in India work together in this organization. Astrology is so ancient that hardly any chronological account of Astrology is available today. The Vedas (ancient timeless hymns) are connected with Astrology.

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Can destiny be deciphered and can it be changed or influenced? This question has been in the human mind since evolution. He realized and felt the presence of a higher cosmic intelligence in all that he saw in this world. There is a definite link here and he needed to connect. It was this desire and urge to discover the universal secrets that led the human mind uncover the ‘language of the Gods’ called astrology. Divine knowledge was revealed to highly evolved sages and seers, who then became the catalyst between the cosmic forces and man.

India has been a land of mystics since centuries and the Vedic literature works discovered in this land reveal some amazing cosmic truths which when understood than help man to evolve to a higher state of living.

Vedic astrology is a science which can predict the destined future and also influence it to eradicate suffering. This is done using the power of ‘sound; or ‘mantra’. The process is known as ‘Yagya’ or ‘Puja’. An Indian astrologer is a perfect manager one can engage to lead a harmonious and productive life. .

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Today we have many great & best Indian astrologers who have not only learnt astrology but are also doing research work. One such Best astrologers in India is Amit Mehtaa, another is Dinesh Shah. Now there are many Best astrologers in India who have written good books on Vedic astrology. Some of the best works and content on Indian astrology is also found in this website, which is written and authored by one of the best astrologers of India today.

Several publication houses of India have a long list of all eminent or Best astrologers in India today and their works. I will close this by mentioning two great western scholars who mastered Vedic astrology and they are William R Levacy and David Frawley. I consider the above two names as the best astrologers in the western world.

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Sophie’s secret life catches up with her. Aunt Jodie makes a debut.